TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODS STRATEGIES

-Tracy PriceCenter for Teaching Excellence
What is your classroom management profile?

Methods and Approaches
Collaborative Learning
Cooperative Learning
Discovery-Based Learning
Engaged Learning
Problem-Based Learning
Whole Language Approach
Examples of Learner-Centered Programs
Develop better study strategies and habits
Collaborative Learning
Impacts of College-Level Courses via Asynchronous Learning
The Conditions for Effective Collaborative Learning
Supporting Collaborative Learning during Information Searching
Collaborative Learning
Cooperative-Learning
Centre for Computer-based Learning in Land Use and Environmental Sciences (CLUES)
Cooperative Learning Consumer Guides
Models That Promote Cooperative Learning
Reading List for Cooperative Learning
Cooperative Learning, Virginia Guide
Using Cooperative Learning Groups
Active and Cooperative Learning Task Design
Classroom Compass Volume 1, Number 2: Cooperative Learning
Instructional Strategies
Internet-Based Learning Environments Conference
Teaching Strategies - Teaching Strategies for Cooperative Learning and Active Strategies for Interdisciplinary Instruction.
Discovery-Based Learning
· Collaborative Learning Using Guided Discovery on the INTERNET
Active/Engaged Learning
Engaged Learning Definition
Plugging In: Choosing and Using Educational Technology for Engaged Learning
Creating Active Learning Environments
Problem-Based Learning
Problem-Based Learning
Goals and Objectives of Problem-Based Learning
Problem-Based Teaching
Problem-Based Curriculum
Whole Language Approach
Whole Language vs. Phonics Reading Instruction
Whole Language
Whole Language -- Reading, 'riting, and Recognition
Whole Language Exercise
Whole Language Reading Instruction

Developing a Good Syllabus:
Communicating Your Requirements, Expectations and Intentions to Students
This teaching-ette will provide specific suggestions for developing a syllabus that effectively communicates information to your students. In addition, strategies will be presented for facilitating students’ understanding of the syllabus and encouraging them to use it as a resource throughout the semester.
“Include more rather than less [in a syllabus]. Specificity and detail are valuable learning tools and reduce initial anxiety.” (Davis, 1993)
“While including basic information, the learning-centered syllabus can be an important learning tool that will reinforce the intentions, roles, attitudes, and strategies that you will use to promote active, purposeful, effective learning.” (Grunert, 1997)
Components of an Effective Course Syllabus
The official LCC course syllabus requires items 1-13. In general, these are the minimum requirements, and under several items there is space for additional information by the department or section instructor. Numbers 14-27 are also items to consider but may not be applicable to all courses. Checking with your own department about additions to the syllabus is advised because guidelines vary across departments within the college.
The name of the instructor, course, department, and institution.
Instructor contact information, including office location and office hours, phone number, e-mail address, and any other method you prefer students use to get in touch with you.
Days, times and location of class meetings.
Any prerequisite, co-requisite, or recommended courses as well as any restrictions for the course.
A detailed course description that clearly explains the focus of the course and the content that will be covered. The following is the course description for Local Detention, CJUS 130.
The course explains operations of local detention facilities and their unique role in the criminal justice system. Emphasis is placed on Michigan jail and lockup operations, as well as the organization, management, policy environment, and emerging issues confronting American jails. Differences in jails and prisons regarding operations and differing clienteles are also covered.
Required or recommended texts or other instructional materials for the class.
Student learning outcomes explaining what students will know and be able to do as a result of taking this course.
Methods of instruction that will be used in the class.
Methods of evaluating student achievement and progress in the class. This section should clearly explain the assignments that must be completed by students, the weight of each and the grading scale used in the course.
College policies on attendance, withdrawals and incomplete grades. These are stated in the Lansing Community College Catalog, available on-line at http://www.lcc.edu/catalog/
A detailed outline of course content and the sequence of information to be covered.
Information about the transfer potential of the course.
College policies on student academic integrity. The following definitions are found in LCC’s catalog, February 2003.
PlagiarismEach student is expected to be honest in his or her work. Plagiarism is dishonest. Plagiarism includes, but is not limited to, the use, by paraphrase or direct quotation, of the published or unpublished work of another person without full and clear acknowledgment. It also includes the unacknowledged use of materials prepared by another person or agency engaged in the selling of term papers and/or other academic materials.
CheatingEach student is expected to be honest in his or her work. Cheating is dishonest. The term “cheating” includes but is not limited to: (1) use of any unauthorized assistance in taking quizzes, tests, or examinations; (2) dependence upon the aid of sources beyond those authorized by the instructor in writing papers, preparing reports, solving problems, or carrying out other assignments; or (3) the acquisition, without permission, of tests or other academic material belonging to a member of the College faculty or staff. Any interaction between students in a testing situation may be interpreted as cheating. Academic honesty is twofold on the part of the student; first, not to cheat, and second, not to enable others to cheat.
A clarification of the distinctions between plagiarism, paraphrasing, and direct citation. You may want to provide students with examples of correct and incorrect ways of using their sources. (Davis, 1993)
Expectations for time spent on homework and/or group work, in addition to in-class time. For example, if you assign a group presentation and expect that students prepare for this outside of class, clearly state that they will need to make arrangements to meet with fellow group members on their own time.
Specific expectations for student behavior in class. These may include your expectations such as: Cell phones off, eating limited to break times, etc.
Contact information for other resources such as the library, computer help desk, assessment center, or tutoring center.
A table of contents so that students can quickly reference desired information in your syllabus. (Grunert, 1997)
Include in the syllabus a letter written to the students addressing some common questions or concerns. (Grunert, 1997)
Include in the syllabus a list of frequently asked questions about your course and the answers.
Any additional information on your attendance policies including the consequences to a student’s grade for non-attendance.
Your policy on “excused absences” versus “skipping” class and what constitutes each.
The instructor’s policies on making up exams or completing missed work.
Any penalties for late assignments and the circumstances under which these penalties will or will not be applied.
A clear definition of the students’ responsibilities in the class. For example: “Students are responsible for completing all of the assigned readings and worksheets prior to the time the class meets to cover that material.”
A clear definition of the instructor’s role and responsibility to students. For example: “It is the instructor’s responsibility in this class to evaluate student work fairly and to give feedback on assignments in a timely fashion.”
A clearly stated extra credit policy and whether or not extra credit will be used.
“Beyond the content of the syllabus is its tone, which can give welcoming or hostile messages…Syllabi that contain humor and enthusiasm can create good first impressions.” (Teaching Handbook, Ohio State University)
Getting Your Points Across To The Audience That Matters
Keep in mind the impact on your students when choosing the wording in your syllabus. Rigid policies and a focus on the penalties for every possible infraction of the rules may be intimidating, especially to more vulnerable students like those right out of high school or those returning after several years away from school.
Use humor and/or a lighter touch when going over the syllabus in class. This will likely make students feel that you are a “real person” and that they can approach you with questions or concerns. Of course, be certain that any humor you use in class is not sarcastic, racist, sexist, homophobic, or otherwise derogatory to an individual or group. (Teaching Handbook, Ohio State University)
Communicate your enthusiasm for your subject and for teaching. If you are passionate about 19th century literature, then maybe they will think there’s something to it. (If the instructor seems bored by the material, why should students bother?)
Communicate your teaching philosophy to the students.
Consider including some information about yourself both in the syllabus and/or during the first class meeting. Students are interested in your background and knowing more about your approach to teaching the class. An introduction may reduce some of their anxiety and develop a rapport. (Teaching Handbook, Ohio State University)
Point out your office location and hours and emphasize your willingness to help students individually and your desire to hear student concerns.
On the first day of class bring enough copies of the course syllabus for each student. This models the behaviors you’d like to see in your students.
Use a three-hole punch on your syllabus so that students can place it in a binder for reference throughout the semester.
Before making copies for each student, carefully proofread and/or have someone else proofread your syllabus for typos, etc. Students will notice mistakes.
If any changes are made to the syllabus, be sure to give those changes to students in writing. (Teaching Handbook, Ohio State University)
Post an electronic copy of your syllabus on-line where students will have access to it at any time.
In your on-line syllabus, create an e-mail link to the instructor so that students can easily contact you. (Keys to an Effective Hyper-Syllabus)
You may want to create links within the syllabus to a discussion board, where you regularly post questions about the course material and invite or require class discussions. (Keys to an Effective Hyper-Syllabus)
Looks matter. Use a quality printer and paper, and pay attention to print size, margins, and spacing. Use bold or italics, different fonts, or underlining to focus attention on certain items. (Becker and Calhoon, 1999)
Bring extra copies of the syllabus to class with you for the first 2 weeks for any late additions.
Spend part of the first class period discussing the course syllabus with your students. This emphasizes the importance of this document. Passing the syllabus out without taking time to discuss it gives the impression that it’s not really important.
As a discussion topic or icebreaker on the first day, divide students into groups and have them list questions they often have when starting a new semester. Have them review the syllabus looking for answers. Follow this up by addressing questions not answered in the syllabus.
Or, divide students into groups and distribute to each group several prepared note cards with questions about the class. Have the groups hunt for the answers in the syllabus.
Throughout the semester, when students ask a question for which there is an answer in the syllabus, gently remind them that the syllabus is a resource for them to use and that most questions are addressed there. If it is a question that is frequently asked, or one that you suspect other students might have, you could invite anyone in the class to find the answer. However, use caution, and perhaps a bit of humor if appropriate, as some students might feel criticized and reluctant to speak up in the future.
Encourage students to refer to the course syllabus often with respect to due dates, explanations of assignments, and the grading policies.
Involve students in setting ground rules for the class, within the parameters of the guidelines you’ve presented in the syllabus.
For example, if you have a written policy that students be respectful of the instructor and other students, invite the class to work in small groups to construct two lists of behaviors, one indicative of desirable behaviors and the other not. They may decide that the ground rules include raising one’s hand to speak and not interrupting another speaker. Reach consensus in the large group, type up the ground rules and bring enough copies for all of the students. If you notice that students are not adhering to the ground rules, remind them to review the rules from time-to-time, and/or have the students as a group review and revise them as necessary.
Resources for Syllabus Construction
Altman, Howard B. & Cashin, William E. Writing A Syllabus. http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/writesyl.htm

Becker, Angela H. & Calhoon, Sharon, K. (1999) What Introductory Psychology Students Attend to on a Course Syllabus. Teaching of Psychology, 26 (1), 6-11. Cited in The Teaching Professor, Volume 14, Number 1. (January, 2000)
Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools for Teaching, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Grunert, Judith (1997) The Course Syllabus: A Learning-Centered Approach. Bolton, Massachusetts: Anker Publishing Company, Inc. http://www.oberlin.edu/stuorg/exco/instructors/syllabus_tips.doc.

“Material Prepared by Lee Haugen” April 1998. Learning-Centered Syllabi Workshop. Center For Teaching Excellence at Iowa State University. http://www.celt.iastate.edu/teaching/syllabi.html

Lowther, M. A., Stark, J. S., and Martens, G. G. (1989). Preparing Course Syllabi for Improved Communication, Ann Arbor, MI: The National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning.
Mager, R.F. Preparing Instructional Objectives. 2nd edition. 1984. Belmont, CA. http://www.gsu.edu/~mstmbs/CrsTools/Magerobj.html
McKeachie, W. J. (1986). Teaching Tips, 9th Ed., Lexington, MA: Heath.
Perlman, Baron & McCann, Lee. Writing a Good Course Syllabus. May 1998. http://www.uwosh.edu/ http://www.opd.iupui.edu/
Stage, Frances K. Muller, Patricia A, Kinzie, Jillian, & Simmons, Ada. (1998).
George Washington Univ. Washington DC. Graduate School of Education and Human Development., ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education Washington DC. Wright, Delivee L. The Most Important Day: Starting Well. Teaching and Learning Center, University of Nebraska. July, 1999. http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/dayone.htm
Keys to an Effective Hyper-Syllabus. (2003) OTEL Office of Technology-Enhanced Learning at the University of Illinois at Springfield. http://www.uillinois.edu/
Teaching Handbook, Chapter 3. Ohio State University. Office of Faculty and Teaching Assistant Development.
Speaking of Teaching. Stanford University Newsletter on Teaching. Winter 1998; (9), No. 2.

Cooperative Learning
WHAT IS IT? Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement.
WHY USE IT? Documented results include improved academic achievement, improved behavior and attendance, increased self-confidence and motivation, and increased liking of school and classmates. Cooperative learning is also relatively easy to implement and is inexpensive.
HOW DOES IT WORK? Here are some typical strategies that can be used with any subject, in almost any grade, and without a special curriculum:
Group Investigations are structured to emphasize higher-order thinking skills such as analysis and evaluation. Students work to produce a group project, which they may have a hand in selecting.
STAD (Student Teams-Achievement Divisions) is used in grades 2-12. Students with varying academic abilities are assigned to 4- or 5-member teams in order to study what has been initially taught by the teacher and to help each reach his or her highest level of achievement. Students are then tested individually. Teams earn certificates or other recognition based on the degree to which all team members have progressed over their past records.
Jigsaw II is used with narrative material in grades 3-12. Each team member is responsible for learning a specific part of a topic. After meeting with members of other groups, who are "expert" in the same part, the "experts" return to their own groups and present their findings. Team members then are quizzed on all topics.
WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF SPECIFIC PROGRAMS? These are just a few of the successful programs available that use specially developed material:
Team Accelerated Instruction (TAI) in Mathematics: An elementary, individualied program that provides direct instruction within a cooperative learning setting, emphasizing concepts, real-life problems, and manipulatives. TAI is for grades 3-6 and older students not ready for algebra.
Contact: Barbara Luebbe Center for the Social Organization ofSchools 3505 North Charles Street Baltimore, MD 21218 (410) 516-0370
Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC): A comprehensive approach to reading and writing/language arts for grades 2-6 that integrates the latest reading research findings with the essential components that make cooperative learning so successful.
Contact: Anna Marie Farnish, CIRC Center for the Social Organization of Schools 3505 North Charles Street Baltimore, MD 21218 (410) 516-0370)
Success for All: A schoolwide program for grades pre-K through 5 that strives to ensure that every child will be performing at grade level in reading, writing, and math by third grade and will be able to maintain grade level from then on.
Contact: Robert Slavin or Nancy Madden Center for Research on Effective Schooling for Disadvantaged Students3505 North Charles Street Baltimore, MD 21218 (410) 516-0274)
Finding Out/Descubrimiento: A science and math curriculum for bilingual Spanish-English students in grades 2 through 5.
Contact: Michael Chatfield Stanford University, School of Education Stanford, CA 94305 (415) 723-5992
WHAT ELSE DOES IT DO? Schools are using similar strategies with both students and teachers to do the following:
Develop and use critical thinking skills and teamwork;
Promote positive relations among different ethnic groups;
Implement peer coaching;
Establish environments where academic accomplishments are valued; and even
Cooperatively manage schools.
WHAT ELSE DOES THE RESEARCH SAY? More than 70 major studies--by federally sponsored research centers, field-initiated investiga- tions, and local districts examining their own practices--have demonstrated cooperative learning's effectiveness on a range of outcomes:
Student achievement: When two necessary key elements--group goals and individual accountability--are used together, the effects on achievement are consistently positive.
Improved relations among different ethnic groups: One of the earliest and strongest findings shows that students who cooperate with each other like each other.
Mainstreaming students with learning disabilities: Significant improvements in relationships occur between these students and other children in their class when these learning strategies are used.
Where can I get more information?
Harold Himmelfarb U.S. Department of Education, OERI 555 New Jersey Ave. NW Washington, DC 20208-5573 (202) 219-2031
ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management University of Oregon 1787 Agate Street Eugene, OR 97403-5207 (503) 346-5043
ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifted Children 1920 Association Drive Reston, VA 22091-1589 (703) 264-9474 \

ACCESS ERIC
1600 Research Blvd. Rockville, MD 20850-3166 1-800-USE-ERIC
by Stephen Balkcom
Education Research CONSUMER GUIDE is a new series published for teachers, parents, and others interested in current educational themes. OR 92-3054 ED/OERI 92-38 Editor: Margery Martin
This Education Research Consumer Guide is produced by the Office of Research, Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) of the U.S. Department of Education.
Lamar Alexander, Secretary of EducationDiane Ravitch, Assistant Secretary, OERIFrancie Alexander, Deputy Assistant Secretary, OERIMilton Goldberg, Director, Office of Research
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Creative Teaching with Internet Technology
Barbara F. McManus, January 13, 2000
To put what follows in perspective, be sure to read New Technology Getting Mixed Grades in School.
PART I: PRINCIPLES
In this site, short supporting quotes and notes will appear in a small, pop-up window; when you have finished reading, close this window to return to the main page. Links to large external sites will appear in the main browser window; use the Back button to return to this page.
Necessity of incorporating internet technology in teaching and learning today
Internet skills are important for employment, quality of life, etc.; our students need to master them no matter what their field or profession.
Like reading, writing, or mathematics, internet skills need to be applied across the curriculum. It is my contention that they are best learned through practice in many different areas, not taught in isolation.
Combination of technology with personal contact and support is optimal for pedagogy 1, 2
For faculty: community is absolutely crucial for faculty seeking to successfully integrate technology into their teaching, including hands-on, discipline-specific teacher training; practical, project-based activities; just-in-time advice and help; long-term mentoring and support 3, 4
For students: internet technology must be thoroughly integrated into the structure of the course (content, learning goals, assessment); the best assignments bring the fruits of internet use into the classroom
Advantages provided by the internet
Motivational power: “positive addiction,” time on task, enjoyment and sense of satisfaction (though these are not automatically created simply by using technology) 5, 6
Resource-based learning: potential to link many different types of resources and provide a guided path through them; potential to provide access to many primary sources, archival materials, databases, etc. to facilitate original research 7
Collaborative learning: ease of communication and collaboration even across distances; challenge to idea of exclusively personal “intellectual property” 8
Control over learning: students can choose time, place, and pace of learning 9
Interactivity: potential for choosing how to pursue and synthesize information, for commenting on information, for self-assessment quizzes, for contributing information 10
Publication: potential for easy and inexpensive publication of student work for classmates and even for a worldwide audience 11, 12
Updatability: infinitely changeable, can be kept very current
Difficulties encountered in using the internet for teaching
Time and learning curve: always assume that preparation of materials will take you at least twice as long as your wildest estimate; be prepared for frequent problems with the technology and with students' use of the equipment; internet sites and computer software change so rapidly that you must frequently refresh your materials and skills 13, 14
Differential access: even if your institution provides excellent facilities and support, some of your students will not have good access to functioning equipment and to the internet
Cost: providing equipment, facilities, and adequate support staff is very expensive; do not assume that increased technology will save the institution money in the short term (though it may ultimately provide a better education for the money) 15
Designing Internet Projects and Assignments
Be aware of what tools are available and of how others have employed these in teaching; the tools and examples we are looking at today will get you started, but there is a wonderful site for more in-depth perusing, Teaching with Electronic Technology, by Michael L. Hall, University of Maryland; see also the University of Washington's fine (if unfortunately named) site Teachnology & Webagogy.
Find out what kinds of resources relevant to your discipline and course topic are already on the web.
Think about how these tools and resources would enable you and your students to do something new, or to do something old in a new and better way, or to do something in a way that would be more interesting and engaging to the students (and to you!).
As you begin to design one or more internet projects, draft learning goals for these assignments that are directly related to the objectives of your course; this will ensure that the projects are integral to the course, not simply technological bells and whistles. It is especially important that your students understand why they are doing these assignments and how they fit into the course as a whole. 16, 17
Make sure that your students understand how to use the tools you are asking them to employ. 18
Outcomes assessment is particularly important to find out if the new types of assignments are accomplishing their aims; also, graded assessment will convince the students that these assignments are essential parts of the course (for an example of specific outcomes goals written for a computer literacy course, see “Computer Skills for Information Problem-Solving: Learning and Teaching Technology in Context” by Michael B. Eisenberg and Doug Johnson).
PART II: PRACTICE
Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC)
Asynchronous: Advantages of these tools include independence of specific time and place requirements, ease of student-teacher and student-student communication, promotion of thoughtful discussion, 19 facilitation of student collaborative projects, online submission of assignments and file sharing, and the potential to actively involve students in the production of learning. There are few disadvantages, though sometimes students require incentives to participate, discussion can develop slowly, and there is a potential for inappropriate comments. 20 For more information, see Diversity University's summary of the main characteristics of Archived Messaging Systems; the more detailed discussions of E-mail and Mailing Lists and Computer-Mediated Communication in JTAP's Guide to Online Tools; and Nancy Chism's Handbook for Instructors on the Use of Electronic Class Discussion.
E-mail
Archived Messaging:
Course Listserv
Message Board
Example of a simple use of course-specific e-mail lists: I posed a challenge to the students in two concurrent courses; participation in the discussion was optional and I later put the discussion on the web so that the students could see how their peers in the other course responded.
Example of a complex, multi-college course discussion board: This Archaeology course, given by the Associated Colleges of the South, could not have taken place without internet technology; participation in this discussion forum was a required and graded part of the course. To view the discussion, click here, then click on Guest, then select Online Archaeology Seminar.
Synchronous: Advantages of these tools include the immediacy and spontaneity of real-time communication, ability to brainstorm and receive immediate responses, lack of expense (if using text-based conferencing) and, in the case of MOOs, potential for role playing, resource creation, and imaginative immersion in other times, places, languages, and cultures. 21 Scheduling, however, can prove difficult, the tools work best with relatively small numbers of participants at a time, and technological lag or slow typing can impede discussion. Video conferencing is still awkward and unreliable unless all parties involved have access to very expensive technology (and sometimes even then). For more information, see Diversity University's summary of the main characteristics of Text-Based Conferencing, Lingua MOO's list of MOO teachers for such subjects as writing, English, computer programming, microbiology, dentistry, languages, and this description of several online articles. V.R. Sites gives some idea of the number and variety of educational MOOs available; the Diversity University MOO hosts classes and activities for many different institutions.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
MOO, MUD, MUSH, MUSE, MUVE
Audio Conferencing, Video Conferencing, Audio/Video Conferencing
Example of an international VSNS Biocomputing Course conducted on Bio MOO, including Biocomputing in a Nutshell, which introduces the handbook Biocomputing for Everyone that was compiled by course participants, and subsequent courses and course materials.
Example of a MOO created for the teaching and learning of classics through the VRoma Project; connect via the Web Gateway and follow instructions for connecting as a guest or browsing anonymously.
Computer-Managed Learning Environments: Also called Virtual Learning Environments, these pre-packaged programs provide a single interface that incorporates many technological tools for online delivery and management of courses, typically including various types of asynchronous and synchronous communication, web pages, file-sharing, online quizzes and tests, etc. Normally these packages are adopted institutionally. They can provide tremendous savings in time for faculty and familiarity and ease of use for students, though the single interface can give a “cookie cutter” look and feel to courses. Examples of popular programs are Blackboard's CourseInfo (adopted by Loyola College), WebCT, and Web Course in a Box.
World Wide Web
Designing Web-Based Assignments: These are a few types of assignments; the possibilities are nearly endless.
1. Finding and Evaluating Information on the Web: Knowing how to locate information on the web is a crucial skill that everyone should possess, not only for academic and professional success, but also for many facets of daily living. It is very important that students be taught how to search effectively and how to evaluate web sites when found, but this can be accomplished via resources already on the web:
“Searching for the Grail? Power Searching with Digital Logic” by Jamie McKenzie, From Now On 7.4 (January 1998). Written in a lively and engaging style, with clear explanations, good examples and links.
Finding it On Line: Web Search Strategies by Debbie Flanagan. A well-designed tutorial describing various types of web search tools and effective search strategies, including practice exercises and a scavenger hunt. Her use of terminology may be a little daunting for younger or less sophisticated learners.
Search Engine Showdown by Greg R. Notess. A very detailed, current, and comprehensive discussion and comparison of most search engines, including reviews, search strategies, statistics, etc. Not intended for the novice.
A Student's Guide to Research with the WWW by Craig Branham, Saint Louis University. Clear, well-designed, and student friendly.
Evaluating Information Found on the Internet by Elizabeth Kirk, Milton Library of Johns Hopkins University. More detailed information, including some useful practical steps for finding information about authorship, publishing body and currency if these are not specified.
Five Criteria for Evaluating Web Pages, a useful, printable chart provided by the Cornell University Library.
The Good, The Bad & The Ugly: or, Why It's a Good Idea to Evaluate Web Sources--Examples. Part of a general site on evaluating web sources by Susan E. Beck, New Mexico State University Library. Information on evaluation is rather sparse and pages can be slow to load, but this page is useful because it provides four three-example sets of web sites of varying quality and reliability.
Sample search/evaluation assignment that can be used in any type of course.
2. Using the Web as a Research Tool for Critical Essays: Besides being able to locate web sources and evaluate the quality and accuracy of their information, students also need to learn how to cite web sources and how to integrate them effectively with print sources. Citing Electronic/Internet Resources, by Marsha Keenan of the James G. Gee Library, provides an up-to-date collection of links to various citation styles. For examples of this type of assignment, see Research Paper Guidelines for American Legal History II (Sally Hadden, Florida State University) or Research Paper for International Law and Business (Albert D. Spalding, Wayne State University).
3. Applying Analytical Frameworks from the Course to Analyze/Critique the Internet Itself: This type of assignment uses the internet as a field for critical analysis rather than as an information tool; the internet offers an easily accessible, convenient, and inexpensive way to practice their analytic skills on the world outside the campus. This type of assignment can also effectively integrate the classroom and the internet if coupled with an oral presentation, as demonstrated in my Gender in Cyberspace project.
4. Using Student Web Publishing as an Assessment Device: Besides helping students to develop a valuable skill, web publishing can be a powerful incentive for students to produce high-quality work, to learn the importance of paying attention to details, to learn how to direct their work to a particular audience, and to develop writing and synthetic skills. An example is provided by my Ancient Rome final examination . The University of Warwick's TELRI project is sponsoring a number of pilot courses based on the incorporation of web-based resources and student web publishing; see, for example, this preliminary report on intermediate French or a more recent series of case studies (available in PDF format). In the French course, project directors reported that the student web publishing was successful in “increasing communication in the target language; providing a purpose and focus for expressing and exchanging meaning; enabling independent learning.”
5. Using On-line Databases or Resource Sites: The internet is a rich source of primary materials that are organized but not digested or interpreted—data, archival materials, case studies, statistics, etc.—that make it possible for students to learn about and actually conduct original research with primary sources in a way that was rarely possible before. Some of the sites even include educational tutorials, such as the following outstanding web sites:
DNA Learning Center's Bioforms
guided topics from the University of Virginia's Valley of the Shadow Project
the tutorials that accompany Oxford University's Virtual Seminars for the Teaching of Literature: World War I Poetry site
the Virtual Economy model of Biz/ed, a British business and economics service for students, teachers and lecturers
the geophysics tutorial, including animations and interactive problems, provided by the Earth Monitoring Station of the UNC-Chapel Hill Department of Geological Sciences
When designing assignments that require students to conduct research in primary sources available on the internet, it is very important to provide structure and guidance (the amount will of course depend on the students' level and expertise in the discipline).
Make sure that students know why they are conducting this research, both in terms of the goals of the course and their training in the discipline.
Help students design interesting and appropriate research questions that are supported by the materials available.
Provide a guided path through the primary materials—the more novice the students, the more detailed the path. The sites listed above provide good examples of such guidance, as do the lesson plans available through the excellent humanities EDSITEment web site.
Creating Web-Based Course Resources: This is more time consuming and requires some specialized skills (much less so if using a computer-managed learning environment), but enables you to harness the internet for the precise needs of your courses and to share your materials with other educators and students as well as with the public at large.
1. Providing an Online Syllabus: While a “typed-style” syllabus is better than nothing, it does not take advantage of the real potential of the internet. The addition of color, graphics, and a hyperlinked structure can make the course seem much more appealing.
2. Providing Supplementary Links: Linking to resources available elsewhere on the web is extremely easy in an online syllabus. However, it is important to contextualize the links. Do not simply provide long lists of linked web page titles with no other indication of their role in the course. It is much better to target the links to specific topics or assignments, to give some indication of what the linked page contains, and to specify whether visiting the link is required or recommended for enrichment. Link only to sites that you have evaluated for accuracy and suitability for the course; sites that are unattractive, too superficial, or too complex will discourage students from using the resources.
3. Providing Online Course Resources: Again, “typed-style” lecture or reading notes, while useful as printed handouts, do not really take advantage of the web's potential and can in fact be very difficult to read on a screen. Hypertext, on the other hand, offers wonderful opportunities to provide multi-layered paths that combine many different types of resources, including images (very important for today's visual learners), glossaries, primary texts, and even sound and video files. Online materials work best when they are thoroughly integrated with work in the classroom. For example, when Michael Arnush of Skidmore College gave his students an assignment for a classroom debate about Cicero, he used the internet to turn it into imaginative role playing by assigning half the class to portray Cicero and half to interrogate him.
4. Providing Interactive Exercises and/or Tests: Well-designed web pages are never purely passive, since they involve choices of where and when to click, how many levels of materials to pursue, etc. However, there are now many ways to make web pages truly interactive, from relatively simple fill-in forms, to Javascript quizzes, to aplets that enable simulations or complex database queries.
Examples of online course materials that exploit most or all of these possibilities can range from a course with relatively simple web-based materials, such as my Feminine Archetype in Myth and Art (see especially the page on Structure of the Feminine Archetype and other notes linked to my Topics page), to a much more complex and fully webbed site like SALMON: Study and Learning Materials On-line, created for several courses in physiological psychology at the University of Plymouth.
Barbara F. McManus, Professor of Classics, The College of New Rochellee-mail: bmcmanus@cnr.edu or bmcman@optonline.netHome Page at CNRHome Page at VRomaJanuary, 2000

Mathematics Software from Virtual Image
Virtual Image are the UK's leading publisher of Mathematics software for schools and colleges. Their products have been praised for their stunning design and innovation by reviewers ranging from the Times Higher Educational Supplement to the distinguished scientist Sir Arthur C Clarke.
The Virtual Image catalogue covers the full range of mathematical education, from classroom materials for primary level (beginning at age 5) to college graduates and beyond. They have also extended the appeal of mathematics by producing innovative cross-disciplinary products such as the acclaimed Art and Mathematics CDROM.
show_header('Interactive Study CDs')
These CDROMs are explanatory guides to mathematical study and the history of art and science, lavishly illustrated with beautiful ray-traced animations.
Art and Mathematics - an accessible introduction to the links between the development of mathematical science, and that of fine art.
Life, the Universe and Mathematics - explores the interaction between simple fundamental rules and complex results.
The Secret of the Universe - the story of how scientists have uncovered the fundamental laws of matter and energy in the universe.
Shape and Space - a series of 3 CDs exploring the fundamentals of geometry.
Polytopia - a series of 2 CDs which chart the development of geometry through history, and extend the Shape and Space subject-matter into higher dimensions.
Uniform Polyhedra and Stellated Polyhedra - these are advanced pure-mathematics packages which explore the properties of regular polyhedra, and illustrate this exploration with stunning images.
show_header('Classroom and Homeworking Exercises')
These packages are written by teachers specifically for classroom and home use by school students of all levels. They include hands-on exercises with "against the clock" options, and detailed help screens.
Primary Mathematics - elementary mathematical skills from simple addition to fractions and brackets.
Fractions - working with fractions, including cancellation, equivalence and decimals.
Mental Arithmetic - a workout for the brain! Lots of exercises from the simplest arithmetic to working with fractions and decimals.
Trigonometry - sines, cosines and tangents from Pythagoras to three-dimensional topology.
Mechanics - mathematical problem-solving for the real world, including projectiles and harmonic motion.
Algebra - interactive exercises in equation-solving, including linear, simultaneous and quadratic equations.
Software Zone
Here at Creative Technology, we have been publishing and supplying software to schools and colleges for over ten years. We have been involved with IT-based and online education since its inception, and we provide tools and systems to those who wish to provide training and education through computer networks, including the internet.
Teaching Software provides tools and services for teachers working with computers and delivering education online. These include:
Markin - a unique on-screen essay marking program - latest version now available in French, German, Spanish, and other languages!
Gerry's Vocabulary Teacher - A huge, editable database of English words and sentences, ideal for teachers and students of intermediate or advanced English. The program can also create learning exercises in common formats.
hotpotatoes.net - An internet-based hosting and results service for teachers who use the "Hot Potatoes" or "TexToys" exercise authoring programs.
TexToys - an authoring program for creating language-learning exercises.
Learning Software used by students and staff in the classroom, or when studying at home.
Development Tools: programming and conversion utilities for those developing websites and software.
show_header('Curriculum Online Electronic Learning Credits')
We are registered with the UK Government's Curriculum Online scheme, and many of our products can be purchased using Electronic Learning Credits.


DEVELOPING TEACHING STYLE
"Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, and I..."
Back to the Creative Teaching Website
If you think back to all the teachers you had, you’ll probably be able to identify different "styles" or approaches. Probably you could categorize them with one word. Words like "grumpy," "boring," "permissive," and even "mean" probably come to mind. Hopefully, there were some you might describe as "influential" or "inspiring."
Most teachers don’t even think about how they appear to students. Whatever the word is that might describe them, it wasn’t something that came about with conscious thought. In all likelihood, it just happened. I’m suggesting that teachers need to consciously consider their teaching style and work toward developing a positive and effective style. Developing a teaching style means more than just one word. To develop a well balanced teaching style means you must give plenty of thought to what works well for you and what will be best for the students you work with.
Don’t think that you can’t change your teaching style. It’s easy to dismiss the possibility of change by saying "Ahhh, I’m me and that’s that. Nothing I can do about it." Of course, it is possible to change your approach to teaching. Here are some steps to consider as you start defining your teaching style.
1. What word or words would students use to describe you now. Are you comfortable with what they would say?2. Is the demeanor you present to a class helpful to your teaching or might it actually get in the way of good teaching?3. What styles of teachers you’ve observed or known would you like to emulate?4. What change in teaching style might make you enjoy your job a bit more?5. What changes in your teaching style are critical now?6. If you need help, what are possible sources of help? For example, if you’re having trouble with discipline, who might help you correct that problem?7. Do you have a confidence problem? Stage fright? 8. Ask students what makes a good teacher. You may find the answers at once shallow ("they’re not mean") and yet perceptive.9. You can make any change gradually. The Superman approach (into the phone booth, change into the super hero uniform in seconds) isn’t required. A little bit at a time is fine.
Once you start the process of developing or enhancing a teaching style which will help you make your job more effective and enjoyable, you might consider some of these goals:
1. Be in command, in charge, and supremely confident in the classroom. You are a PROFESSIONAL, after all.2. Never lose your temper. Be firm, perhaps, but don’t ever lose control. Deal with explosive situations at another time or another place.3. Talk to students as if they’re human beings, not predatory devils. A little respect for students goes a long way and doesn’t stop you from providing advice and guidance.4. Have a sense of humor. Be ready to laugh even at yourself at appropriate moments.5. Be fair. "Fair" is probably the most commonly mentioned trait students use about teachers. It may be the hardest thing to do. Work at it. Ask for help from fellow teachers, administrators, and students.6. Be a mentor or get a mentor. Find someone on the faculty you can trust to bounce ideas off of.7. Be organized. Read any book on how to be organized that looks like it might help.8. Try not to take problems home. Work, yes, but problems, no. Resolve them before you leave for the day or at least develop a plan for resolving them tomorrow.9. Be prepared. Not necessarily in the Boy Scout sense, but have ready all you need for teaching before school starts. Have your lessons planned, make sure all materials are in place, and check the VCR before you show that video.10. Be the professional with parents and administrators. Consider the concerns and requirements of others, but remember…you’re a trained professional.11. Give a little of yourself. Arrive a little early, stay a little late. Everyone on the faculty knows who comes in at the last minute and leaves just as the final bell tolls.
Here are some exercises that might help you develop any changes you see necessary in your teaching style. Pick ones which might really work for you. If they seem senseless or meaningless, fine. Sometimes the best path is the one you find for yourself.
1. List the words you think students may be using to describe you.2. Rank the teachers you know in order by quality of teaching, respect 3. accorded by students, knowledge of subject matter, approval by parents,etc. You should keep these lists very private, of course, but you may find them useful. Incidentally, most teachers who make these lists find that the same teachers rank near the top on almost all lists.3. Make sure you put yourself on the lists in number 2.4. Create a character for a short story who is the best teacher you can imagine.5. Sit in on the class of a widely respected teacher. See what that teacher does.6. Sit in on the class of a teacher you think is having trouble. Find out why.
Back to the Creative Teaching Website
Copyright © Robert Morgan, 2002

Accelerated LearningDefinitionAccelerated learning is a comprehensive approach to school change, developed in 1986 at Stanford University. Accelerated learning aims to create school success for all students by closing the achievement gap between at-risk and mainstream children. The idea is to radically change individual schools by redesigning and integrating curricular, instructional, and organizational practices so that they provide enrichment--not just remediation--for at-risk students.
The accelerated learning theory assumes that at-risk students have "learning gaps" in areas valued by schools and mainstream economic and social institutions. The program also assumes that remedial approaches fail to close these gaps because they don't build on the students' strengths and they don't tap into the resources of teachers, parents, and the community.
Basic ElementsWhen an accelerated learning program is introduced into a school, the process involves several guiding principles and values:
Unity of Purpose--Parents, teachers, students, and administrators must agree on a common set of goals for the school. These goals become the focal point of everyone's efforts, serving as a framework for all curricular, instructional, and organizational initiatives.
Empowerment/Responsibility--Members of the school community can make important educational decisions, take responsibility for implementing them, and take responsibility for the outcomes. This breaks the stalemate among administrators, teachers, parents, and students: It stops them from blaming each other and factors beyond their control for the students' poor educational outcomes.
Building on Strengths--This program identifies and uses all the available learning resources in the school community, instead of exaggerating weaknesses and ignoring strengths. For example, parents can positively influence their children's education at home and help teachers understand their children better. School administrators could make a concerted effort to creatively work with parents, staff, and students, rather than merely complying with them. Plus, teachers bring valuable insights, intuition, teaching, and organizational skills to the table. Furthermore, the strengths of at-risk students differ from those associated with predominantly white, middle-class culture, and often are overlooked. And finally, communities are ripe with assets, including youth organizations, senior citizens, businesses, religious groups.
Getting Started as an Accelerated School There are four initial steps for developing an accelerated school. They are:
1. Take stock of where you are, and establish baseline data.
2. Create a shared vision as a focus for change.
3. Compare your vision to baseline information, then identify gaps and needed changes.
4. Identify 3-4 initial priorities, and establish small groups to work on these.
ReadingHopfenberg, Wendy S. and Levin, Henry M., Accelerated Schools. School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA (1990).
Accelerated Schools, Newsletter of the Accelerated Schools Project. School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
Accelerated SchoolsDefinitionIn 1986, Stanford University introduced the concept of accelerated schools, an approach designed to create success for all students by closing the achievement gap between at-risk and mainstream children. The idea is to radically change individual schools by redesigning and integrating curricular, instructional, and organizational practices so that they provide enrichment--not just remediation--for at-risk students.
The accelerated schools program assumes that at-risk students have "learning gaps" in areas valued by schools and mainstream economic and social institutions. The program also assumes that remedial approaches fail to close these gaps because they don't build on the students' strengths and they don't tap into the resources of teachers, parents, and the community.
Basic ElementsWhen the accelerated schools program is introduced into a school, the process involves several guiding principles and values:
Unity of Purpose--Parents, teachers, students, and administrators must agree on a common set of goals for the school. These goals become the focal point of everyone's efforts, serving as a framework for all curricular, instructional, and organizational initiatives.
Empowerment/Responsibility--Members of the school community can make important educational decisions, take responsibility for implementing them, and take responsibility for the outcomes. This breaks the stalemate among administrators, teachers, parents, and students: It stops them from blaming each other and factors beyond their control for the students' poor educational outcomes.
Building on Strengths--This program identifies and uses all the available learning resources in the school community, instead of exaggerating weaknesses and ignoring strengths. For example, parents can positively influence their children's education at home and help teachers understand their children better. School administrators could make a concerted effort to creatively work with parents, staff, and students, rather than merely complying with them. Plus, teachers bring valuable insights, intuition, teaching, and organizational skills to the table. Furthermore, the strengths of at-risk students differ from those associated with predominantly white, middle-class culture, and often are overlooked. And finally, communities are ripe with assets, including youth organizations, senior citizens, businesses, religious groups.
Getting Started as an Accelerated School There are four initial steps for developing an accelerated school. They are:
1. Take stock of where you are, and establish baseline data.
2. Create a shared vision as a focus for change.
3. Compare your vision to baseline information, then identify gaps and needed changes.
4. Identify 3-4 initial priorities, and establish small groups to work on these.
ReadingHopfenberg, Wendy S. and Levin, Henry M., Accelerated Schools. School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA (1990).
Accelerated Schools, Newsletter of the Accelerated Schools Project. School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
The content on this page was written by On Purpose Associates.
Authentic AssessmentDefinition
Simply testing an isolated skill or a retained fact does not effectively measure a student's capabilities. To accurately evaluate what a person has learned, an assessment method must examine his or her collective abilities.This is what is meant by authentic assessment. Authentic assessment presents students with real-world challenges that require them to apply their relevant skills and knowledge. Basic Elements
Authentic assessment accomplishes each of the following goals:
Requires students to develop responses rather than select from predetermined options
Elicits higher order thinking in addition to basic skills
Directly evaluates holistic projects
Synthesizes with classroom instruction
Uses samples of student work (portfolios) collected over an extended time period
Stems from clear criteria made known to students
Allows for the possibility of multiple human judgments
Relates more closely to classroom learning
Teaches students to evaluate their own work
"Fairness" does not exist when assessment is uniform, standardized, impersonal, and absolute. Rather, it exists when assessment is appropriate--in other words, when it's personalized, natural, and flexible; when it can be modified to pinpoint specific abilities and function at the relevant level of difficulty; and when it promotes a rapport between examiner and student.
Authentic assessment is designed to be criterion-referenced rather than norm-referenced. Such evaluation identifies strengths and weaknesses, but does not compare or rank students.
Authentic assessment is often based on performance: Students are asked to demonstrate their knowledge, skills, or competencies in whatever way they find appropriate.
There are several challenges to using authentic assessment methods. They include managing its time-intensive nature, ensuring curricular validity, and minimizing evaluator bias. Recommended Reading
Fourth Generation Evaluation, by Egon G. Guba and Yvonna S. Lincoln. Newberry Park, CA: Sage Publications.
The content on this page was written by On Purpose Associates.


Charter SchoolsDefinitionIn concept, a charter school is a self-governing, publicly funded school that the community holds accountable for the results it produces--such as student learning--rather than for its compliance with school board or government rules and regulations.
A charter school operates without the typical restraints of an ordinary public school, for example, collective-bargaining agreements. Its enrollment is made up of students who want to attend that specific school--in effect, a charter school is a school of choice. In addition to its unique legal and governance structure, a charter school takes on elements of site-based management: People at the school site have the power to make critical decisions about issues such as budget and personnel.
Basic ElementsBy January 1994, eight states had passed laws permitting the creation of charter schools. However, there are significant differences among these laws:
Some states limit chartering to existing public schools that want to convert to charter status, while others allow the creation of new schools.
Some states give responsibility for negotiating and approving charters to local school boards, while others bypass the local boards and allow entities such as community colleges, universities, and the state board of education to authorize charter schools.
Some states cap the number of charter schools that can be created, and some do not. Plus, some states give charter schools blanket waivers from existing state rules and regulations, while other states require rule-by-rule negotiations.
The content on this page was written by On Purpose Associates.
Classroom AssessmentDefinition
Classroom Assessment Techniques consist of a variety of feedback and discussion methods that gauge the quality of the learning process. Basic Elements
Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs), also known as Classroom Research or Action Research, are a series of tools and practices designed to give teachers accurate information about the quality of student learning. Information gathered isn't used for grading or teacher evaluation. Instead, it's used to facilitate dialogue between students and teacher on the quality of the learning process, and how to improve it. As authors Patricia Cross and Thomas Angelo state in their book Classroom Assessment Techniques, "Teaching without learning is just talking." CATs provide both teachers and students with "in process" information on how well students are learning what the curriculum intends.
The three basic questions CATs ask are:
1. What are the essential skills and knowledge I am trying to teach?
2. How can I find out whether students are learning them?
3. How can I help students learn better?
The classroom assessment process assumes that students need to receive feedback early and often, that they need to evaluate the quality of their own learning, and that they can help the teacher improve the strength of instruction.
The basic steps in the classroom assessment process are:
1. Choose a learning goal to assess
2. Choose an assessment technique
3. Apply the technique
4. Analyze the data and share the results with students
5. Respond to the data
CATs provide teachers with a "menu" of evaluation tools that:
1. Check for student background knowledge
2. Identify areas of confusion
3. Enable students to self-assess their learning level
4. Determine students' learning styles
5. Target and build specific skills
Reading
Classroom Assessment Techniques, by K. Patricia Cross and Thomas Angelo.
The content on this page was written by On Purpose Associates.
Cognitive CoachingDefinitionCognitive coaching is based on the idea that metacognition--or being aware of one's own thinking processes--fosters independence in learning. By providing personal insights into the learner's own thinking processes, cognitive coaching builds flexible, confident problem-solving skills. Plus, it encourages self-efficacy and pride.
Basic ElementsCoaching involves the modeling of self-appraisal and the self-management of cognition by an expert. It also involves learner performance and reflection, internalizing, and generalizing.
In modeling, the instructor explains thinking, reading, and calculating strategies by naming the strategy (such as "eliminating alternatives" or "finding the main idea"), then explaining why it should be learned. The instructor also provides explicit steps for using a particular strategy, deciding when it's appropriate, and evaluating it.
Dialogue, both on the part of instructor and student, is another prominent aspect of coaching. For example, in the "scaffolded instruction" technique, teachers and students take turns leading dialogues about texts, asking each other to predict, question, clarify, summarize, and self-appraise.
Scott Paris, in his 1990 article "Promoting Metacognition and Motivation of Exceptional Children" in Remedial and Special Education, lists the following fundamentals of building effective metacognitive skills:
1. Common goals held by teachers and students
2. Ongoing assessment of performance, in order to adjust difficulty levels
3. Mutual regulation--in other words, teachers benefit from the students' misconceptions and observations of the strategies, while students learn from their instructor's previous experience using the strategies
Adult learning principles greatly support cognitive coaching and predict its success. For example, adult coaching is often used as an alternative to clinical supervision in developing the teaching and management skills of school administrators. However, cognitive coaching is also being developed in K-12 instructional programs for special needs and whole language students. Apparently, the same principles apply for both adults and children...imagine that!
ReadingFarmer, James A., New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education.
Marzano, R.J. et al., Dimensions of Thinking. Alexandria: ASCD.
Paris, Scott G. "Promoting Metacognition and Motivation of Exceptional Children, Remedial and Special Education, Nov-Dec 1990, pp 7-15.
The content on this page was written by On Purpose Associates.


Comer SchoolsDefinitionThis is an approach to restructuring the governance and practices of individual schools, initiated by psychologist James Comer in the mid-1970s. This approach hinges on Comer's theory of how children develop and learn, and the reasons that disadvantaged, minority children do not learn in schools.
Comer believes that children follow a developmental continuum. They are born, totally dependent, into a family that is part of a social network with beliefs, attitudes, activities, and lifestyles. Parents become mediators who tell children what is important. Children gradually learn to manage their feelings and impulses, in essence, to control themselves. Development occurs in speech and language, cognition, intellectual and academic understanding, and moral, psychological, and social dimensions. To learn, children must imitate and identify with authority figures, in other words, internalize attitudes and values by relating emotionally to others.
When children come to school prepared to learn in that school's style, due to how they have fared in the developmental continuum, they are perceived as "good." When they do not, they are often perceived as "bad." For this reason, Corner attests individual schools must support further developmental growth.
Basic ElementsWhen the Comer process is introduced into a school, it usually involves the following elements:
· Changed School Governance--Parents, community members, teachers, administrators, and school staff collaborate in making key educational decisions.
· Creation of a Social Skills Curriculum--Schools need developmental programs for young children who do not learn certain types of skills at home. Typically, a social skills curriculum covers politics and government, business and economics, health and nutrition, and spiritual and leisure activities.
· Adoption of a Developmental Perspective Toward Children and Their Learning--This perspective incorporates three beliefs:
1. All children are capable of learning.
2. Learning is best achieved through the collaborative participation of all involved adults.
3. Students enter school at different points along a developmental continuum.
The content on this page was written by On Purpose Associates.


ConstructivismDefinitionConstructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own "rules" and "mental models," which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences.
DiscussionThere are several guiding principles of constructivism:
1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning.
2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts.
3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models.
4. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just memorize the "right" answers and regurgitate someone else's meaning. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the quality of their learning.
How Constructivism Impacts LearningCurriculum--Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.
Instruction--Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyze, interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students.
Assessment--Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in judging their own progress.
ReadingJacqueline and Martin Brooks, The Case for Constructivist Classrooms.
The content on this page was written by On Purpose Associates.



Instructional TechnologyDefinitionInstructional technology is just what it sounds like: using computers, CD-ROMs, interactive media, modems, satellites, teleconferencing, and other technological means to support learning.
DiscussionSome educators believe the use of interactive, computer-based technology is crucial to improving classroom learning. These educators contend that advanced technology will fundamentally change the learning process and structure. Other educators believe technology is merely a tool that has minimal impact on the quality of learning.
How Instructional Technology Affects LearningCurriculum--Advanced technology has the potential to significantly expand the breadth and depth of the curriculum. With the Internet, for example, students can access information far beyond the scope of their traditional textbooks. Curricula can be individualized and adapted to students' specific learning styles. Instructional technology has the power to enhance overall knowledge accumulation, instead of just focusing on content mastery.
Instruction--Advanced technology could significantly affect the role of teachers, as well as the structure of schools and classrooms. The use of instructional technology changes the teacher's role from expert to facilitator or coach. Plus, instruction is no longer limited to the school building or classroom. For example, students can take courses from a global satellite feed or on the Internet. Learning can take place at home, at work, or anywhere else that has the capacity for a television, phone, or computer.
Assessment--Instructional technology will focus more and more on building feedback loops directly into the learning process. Students can obtain frequent and accurate feedback, make corrections to their work, and structure learning experiences around their individual needs. Assessment can be monitored by offsite instructors, plus it can be ongoing and cumulative.
ReadingLewis J. Perelman, School's Out.
The content on this page was written by On Purpose Associates.
Mastery LearningDefinitionMastery learning proposes that all children can learn when provided with the appropriate learning conditions in the classroom.
DiscussionThe application of mastery learning is based on Benjamin Bloom's Learning for Mastery model, with refinements made by Block. Mastery learning is predominantly a group-based, teacher-paced instructional approach, in which students learn by cooperating with their classmates. However, some mastery learning strategies require students to work independently, rather than with classmates.
How Mastery Learning Affects EducationCurriculum--Mastery learning does not focus on content, but on the process of mastering it. This type of learning works best with the traditional content-focused curriculum, one based on well-defined learning objectives organized into smaller, sequentially organized units.
Instruction--This strategy captures many of the elements of successful tutoring and the independent functionality seen in high-end students. In a mastery learning environment, the teacher directs a variety of group-based instructional techniques. The teacher also provides frequent and specific feedback by using diagnostic, formative tests, as well as regularly correcting mistakes students make along their learning path.
Assessment--Teachers evaluate students with criterion-referenced tests rather then norm-referenced tests. Mastery learning ensures numerous feedback loops, based on small units of well-defined, appropriately sequenced outcomes. ReadingBlock, Schools, Society and Mastery Learning.
Benjamin Bloom, All Our Children Learning.
The content on this page was written by On Purpose Associates
Portfolio AssessmentDefinition
Portfolio assessment provides a body of student work--essentially, a portfolio--that can be used to appraise student performance over time. Discussion
Portfolio assessment ranges from portfolios that demonstrates the student's best work to an "expanded student record" that holds a full representation of the student's work, from math equations to essays on literature. There has been some confusion in the field as to who the portfolio is being kept for. For example, in some cases, student portfolios serve as a replacement for the high school diploma or transcript.
The disadvantage of portfolios is that they're not as quick and easy to evaluate, plus they're hard to rank, as with a grade or score. Because portfolios are qualitative, many employers find them difficult to use as a determinant of a candidate's skills. Often, employers would rather see a quantitative demonstration of a student's best skills and work.
Some schools create portfolios that serve as a representative sample of a student's work, showing the range of performance and experience. Such records usually hold far more information that employers need. Other schools want to use portfolios as an assessment tool to provide an alternative to standardized or teacher testing.
In some schools there has been much discussion on who "owns" the portfolio, the student or the school? Ownership implies who gets to decide what goes into the portfolio, where the portfolio is stored, and what happens to the portfolio after graduation.
Let's look the implications portfolios have on the following elements of education:
· Curriculum--Some people believe that using portfolios will enable teachers to broaden their curriculum to include areas they traditionally could not assess with standardized testing. How well this works depends on how much a curriculum is developed "to the test," in other words, how much curriculum is geared towards achieving high test scores rather than learning for learning's sake.
· Instruction--Portfolio assessment appears to compliment a teacher's use of instructional strategies centered around teamwork, projects, and applied learning. Portfolios are also compatible with more individualized instruction, as well as strategies focused on different learning styles.
· Assessment--A portfolio can be used as an assessment tool. External assessors--employers, evaluation panels, and so on--can benefit from them. Teachers can also utilize them to judge student performance. Plus, students can use their own portfolios for self-assessment and reflection.

The content on this page was written by On Purpose Associates.
School to Work TransitionDefinitionSchool-to-work programs provide ways for students to transition successfully into the economy, either through paid employment with a business or self-employment. Numerous studies reveal that, upon high school graduation, many students who aren't college-bound are neither prepared for nor connected to employment opportunities.
Basic ElementsIn general, building a school-to-work transition program entails the following three approaches:
1. Integrate the long-separated "tracks" of academic and vocational education. From middle school on, schools should orient youth to work, help them explore different types of jobs, provide guidance about career paths, and assist them in finding work relevant to their needs and interests. Vocational education is considered too narrow and specific, outdated by modern technology, and ineffective in building language and math skills. Academic education is criticized for being too conventional, driven predominantly by standardized tests, and ineffective at motivating most students.
2. Link schooling with the demands and realities of the workplace. Through employment-related experiences and on-the-job learning, students can receive significant exposure to the workforce and can prepare for their future work environment.
3. Develop programs to closely coordinate secondary and post-secondary education with employers. Apprenticeships and school-business partnerships are just two of the many ways educators and businesspeople can produce a shared view of youth learning and development.
These changes have extensive learning implications, particularly for high schools, including:
Curriculum--Develop new models that integrate vocational and academic education, from revamping the guidance counseling system to creating a coherent sequence of courses related to broad occupational clusters.
Instruction--Focus on experiential, project-based learning. Also, reduce the "tracking," or segregation, of students into either academic or vocational studies.
Assessment--Use portfolios to gauge a student's employability.
The content on this page was written by On Purpose Associates.


Service LearningDefinitionService learning combines service to the community with learning outside the classroom. Schools throughout the country are striving to implement service learning along the entire K-12 continuum.
DiscussionService learning has acquired several different meanings. For instance, some high schools have instituted a requisite that all students must perform a certain number of hours of community service.
Other schools have implemented service learning as a part of their ongoing curriculum. This may include class, team, or individual exercises and assignments. For example, a project might revolve around cleaning up trash in a park, categorizing the waste, and determining its impact on the environment.
And some schools even employ programs in which individual students serve the community organizations that relate to their career interests.
How Service Learning Affects EducationCurriculum--Depending on the definition of service learning, there can be a significant impact on curriculum. Schools use service learning to provide meaning and context to the information taught. However, students that merely volunteer for community service hours may have little impact on what happens in the classroom. Those students who do see connections--or a lack of them--between the concepts learned and their real-world applications may pressure schools for curriculum changes of context and relevancy.
Instruction--Teachers may need to expand their own knowledge base to extend learning beyond the classroom. Teachers may also have to relinquish their perception as being the only source of information. The goals of instruction often change from amassing knowledge to using and applying knowledge in a real-world context.
Assessment--Service learning often changes the nature of assessment by focusing on the customer satisfaction of the organization students are serving. Teacher's assessment can be either shared or replaced by assessors in the community who can provide more accurate feedback.
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Thematic InstructionDefinitionThematic instruction is the organization of a curriculum around macro "themes." Thematic instruction integrates basic disciplines like reading, math, and science with the exploration of a broad subject, such as communities, rain forests, river basins, the use of energy, and so on.
Basic ElementsThematic instruction is based on the idea that people acquire knowledge best when learning in the context of a coherent "whole," and when they can connect what they're learning to the real world. Thematic instruction seeks to put the teaching of cognitive skills such as reading, mathematics, science, and writing in the context of a real-world subject that is both specific enough to be practical, and broad enough to allow creative exploration.
Thematic instruction usually occurs within an entire grade level of students. Teachers of all the different subjects taught in that particular grade work together as a team to design curriculum, instruction methods, and assessment around a preselected theme. Typical steps include:
1. Choosing a theme--Themes often involve a large, integrated system (such as a city, an ecosystem, and so on) or a broad concept (such as democracy, weather, and so on). Instructors often strive to connect the theme to the students' everyday life. In some cases, students participate in choosing the theme or themes.
2. Designing the integrated curriculum--The teachers involved must organize the learning objectives of their core curriculum (both process skills and content knowledge) around the theme. In the study of a river basin, for instance, math might involve calculating water flow and volume; social studies could look at the nature of river communities; science might study phenomena like weather and floods; and literature could study books and novels that focus on rivers, such as the works of Mark Twain. The initial design requires considerable work on the part of teachers. Again, sometimes students help design the curriculum.
3. Designing the instruction--This usually involves making changes to the class schedule, combining hours normally devoted to specific topics, organizing field trips, teaching in teams, bringing in outside experts, and so on.
4. Encouraging presentation and celebration--Because thematic instruction is often project-oriented, it frequently involves students giving collective presentations to the rest of the school or the community. Plus, students commonly create extensive visual displays.
Thematic instruction can be a powerful tool for reintegrating the curriculum and eliminating the isolated, reductionist nature of teaching around disciplines rather than experience. It requires a lot of hard, initial design work, plus a substantial restructuring of teacher relationships and class schedules.
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Total Quality SchoolsDefinitionTotal Quality schools apply the principles and practices of Total Quality Management to their administrative and instructional functions.
Basic ElementsWhen introduced in schools, the Total Quality process usually involves a combination of the following elements:
Understanding Systems and Processes--Education administrators make efforts to understand their school as a system containing many subsystems and processes. To do so, they often will "map" their systems and "flowchart" their processes. Schools will then strive to improve by redesigning their systems.
Using Data for Decision-Making--Employees learn to use data in decision-making. This frequently involves employing statistical methods to understand why processes vary.
Using Problem-Solving Teams and Teamwork--Classroom teams use common problem-solving processes and tools to tackle challenges and improve procedures. Students are often taught to use both methods and tools to improve classroom operations.
Identifying and Understanding Customer Needs--Schools identify the constituencies they need to satisfy, and attempt to understand their expectations and needs. Schools will develop measurement systems that compare their performance to their constituents' expectations.
Quality Planning--Some schools use quality planning processes as a supplement to their strategic planning processes for identifying and achieving organization-wide goals. This will often involve developing organization-wide quality indicators, or "scoreboards".
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Youth ApprenticeshipDefinitionYouth apprenticeship is a learning system that prepares students for work by giving them a combination of classroom instruction and paid on-the-job training. In this education model, students obtain a set of well-defined occupational abilities by learning concepts in the classroom and applications in a work setting.
DiscussionYouth apprenticeship systems in the U.S. have been influenced by successful apprenticeship models in Germany, Denmark, Switzerland, and Austria. About 66% of the youth in these European countries use an apprenticeship system to prepare for the workforce.
Apprenticeships range in occupation from baking to banking. Apprenticeship systems are run by a partnership of government, educators, and employers. Employer committees play a significant role in designing, monitoring, and evaluating apprenticeship programs. Programs begin accepting youth at age 15 or 16 (once they have finished their requisite education), and run for three to four years.
U.S. policy makers have been trying to develop a youth apprenticeship system that is more flexible and fits into our nation's structure of education, governance, and business.
How Youth Apprenticeship Affects LearningCurriculum--The curriculum for specific occupational skills generally has been perceived as rather narrow. This is because content in the classroom mainly focuses on the applications called for in the workplace. However, most European apprenticeship programs have broadened their curriculum to focus more heavily on technology, critical thinking, problem solving, teamwork, and project management.
Instruction--In the past, the popular opinion has been that academic instruction in apprenticeship--and other occupational--programs is neglected or weak. However, today there is a strong movement to add rigorous academic standards to apprenticeship programs, and to integrate the academic activities with the occupational skill training. Instruction at the work site varies: Some sites offer very formal and prescribed programs, while others provide informal mentoring by a master in the trade or profession. Critics charge that large companies tend to replicate classroom or laboratory training without providing much hands-on learning, while small companies often exploit apprentices as cheap labor without offering much real instruction.
Assessment--Assessment in the academic classrooms has traditionally relied on tests and grades. In the occupational laboratories, however, assessment includes a combination of traditional testing and project completion. At the workplace, assessment is generally authentic and includes feedback from supervisors, mentors, and co-workers. Since students are working while learning, there is continual feedback on the quality of their efforts.
The content on this page was written by On Purpose Associates.
Mastery Learning

Ref: John B. Carroll, Benjamin Bloom, and Madeline Hunter


Notes from Benjamin Bloom lecture [ACSA, April, 1987]:


With traditional instruction, the correlation of pupil
performance from grade-to-grade is 80%+. The variation within
each grade is greater each year. The range is double the second
grade in the fourth grade, triple in grade 6. Rank order
is already fixed by third grade for the next 8 years for 90% of
kids. Similarly, self-concept drops grade-by-grade for the
bottom 20% while it rises year-by-year for the top 20%. This is
true of most countries, not just the US.

Home environment is the major key for elementary success
[k-6],only a small percent recover. It is possible to change the
instructional effect, even though we may have little success
directly changing the home effect. The mid-point for

conventional instruction is the 50th percentile. For individual
tutoring, it is the 98th percentile. For whole class mastery
learning instruction, it is the 84th percentile. It is unlikely
that an inherited characteristic can be change in one term--but
altered learning conditions can make a fantastic change.

CORE IDEA OF MASTERY LEARNING: aptitude is the length
of time it takes a person to learn not how "bright" a person is,
i.e., everyone can learn given the right circumstances.

How to instruct for mastery:

1. Major objectives representing the purposes of the course
or unit define mastery of the subject.
2. The substance is divided into relatively small learning
units, each with their own objectives and assessment.

3. Learning materials and instructional strategies are
identified; teaching, modeling, practice, formative evaluation,
reteaching, and reinforcement, etc., and summative evaluation
are included.

4. Each unit is preceded by brief diagnostic tests.

5. The results of diagnostic tests are used to provide
supplementary instruction to help student(s) overcome problems.

Time to learn must be adjusted to fit aptitude. NO
STUDENT IS TO PROCEED TO NEW MATERIAL UNTIL BASIC PREREQUISITE
MATERIAL IS MASTERED.

[There is a difference between "80% of students will master the
material" and "each student will master at least 80% of the material"
before proceeding.]

Bloom, Block, and Carroll believe that mastery learning can be
handled in a normal classroom. Another group has developed a
comprehensive curriculum system for use in reorganized schools.
Ref: Individually Prescribed Instruction [IPI--Learning Research
and Development Center of the University of Pittsburgh]
provides for organization of schools and classes to provide for
more individualized instruction than is possible in most systems.

Benjamin Bloom also asked students to "think out loud" while
answering exam questions. He found that many students who could
answer short-answer questions were befuddled by thought
questions. They did not know how to solve problems [not limited
to math problem solving--including questions like, "Give the
reasons which would have influenced a typical Virginia tobacco
farmer to support the ratification of the Constitution of 1789,
and the reasons which would have influenced him to oppose the
ratification." A good problem-solver reasoned like this:
"...what rights did the Constitution give him? From the
standpoint of money, which one would be more to his advantage?
Prior to the Revolutionary War, he would have to pay taxes to
England.... He might approve of it for patriotic reasons and
from the standpoint of money, he wouldn't be limited to shipping
his tobacco to England...so he wouldn't have to pay those
taxes...etc." Another student, who could respond readily to
true/false, multiple choice questions, was stumped. A poor
problem-solver, he thought, "Well, to tell the truth I never had
anything on that in class and I can't think of any."] Tutoring
has been proven as a successful way to remedy this sort of
deficiency. Tutors are hard to come by. However, group
discussions, where good problem-solvers tell how they reason an
answer, are good substitutes. ["metacognition"]
Bloom suggests that at the end of an instructional unit,
[about every two weeks], the teacher give a formative [not used
for grading] test to find out what has been learned and not been
learned...determine corrective instruction for the common errors
...reteach--perhaps in a different way/style...and test again on
the same items using altered questions. Grading for mastery is
not on the curve. Rather it means that every student can get an
"A" if they master the material. Using his methods, the average
student of Bloom's mastery class passed at the 95th percentile of
traditionally-taught classes.

Related topics: Language Labs, Direct Instruction, Practice
Theory, Head Start.

Additional Bloom suggestions:
Give a pre-test and review at the beginning of a semester
those essential, basic facts, skills, concepts that are
necessary to later success.

Give two chances to succeed on each quiz/final exam.
[Bloom's not sure whether you should take the average or the
better of two scores.] But he is sure you should reteach the
areas missed in the first test...use a different explanation/
example/demonstration than the first time or a different style of
instruction [e.g., coop. learning vs. direct instruction]. Then
use a different form of the test.

If this process is repeated every 2 or 3 weeks, those who
follow mastery learning vs. a control [conventional instruction]
group achieve these results:

Mastery learning 85% in top 10% vs. 45% in conventional.

Time on task, 45% of time in conventional instruction.
Mastery learning 85%. Tutoring, 95% time on task.

Mastery learning fits sequential subjects best, e.g., math,
foreign language, etc. where prior knowledge is essential to
progress. But it is adaptable to episodic subjects, like
history, as well.

Suggestions for parents: 1. Household responsibilities,
i.e., one chore to be done one time. 2. Regular times for
eating, studying, sleeping, working, playing. 3. School work
and reading come before play--even before other work. [Musicians
practice regularly or they don't make it!] 4. Praise for good
school work--occasionally before others. 5. A quiet place to
study. 6. Family exchange on what pupil is doing...listen to
the child's report. 7. Visit libraries, zoos, museums, etc., as
a family. 8. Encourage good speech habits. At dinner or
another time when everyone has a chance to talk. 9. Discuss
what is being studied, materials used, etc. 10. Give special
help when needed. 11. Talk re. planning for future, prep. for
college, vocation, etc. There is a very high correlation between
home environment/attitude toward education and school success.


5 Keys to success:

Mastery Learning.

Home environment.

Pre-requisite enhancement.

Make reading automatic, beyond decoding.

Emphasis on creativity, higher mental processes [upper
levels of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, critical
thinking, etc.
MASTERY LEARNING
DIRECT INSTRUCTION BASIC PRACTICE MODEL
1. Orientation
2. Presentation
3. Structured practice
4. Guided Practice
5. Independent practice.
The Basic Practice Model of Teaching [Joyce and Weil]: Phase one: framework for the lesson is established. a. provide objective of lesson and level of performance required. b. describe the content of the lesson and relationship to prior knowledge/experience. c. discuss the procedures of the lesson--the different parts of the lesson and student's responsibility during each activity. Phase two: explain the new concept(s) or skill(s), demonstrationand examples--orally and visually. For a concept, includeattributes (characteristics), the rule or definition, and severalexamples. For a skill, identify the steps of the skill withexamples of each. It is important that pupils have a visualrepresentation of the task (VRT) in the early stages of learning. Phase three: Structured practice. Lead students throughpractice examples working in a lock-step fashion each step of thetask as it appears in the VRT. [e.g., use an overhead projectordoing practice examples on a transparency so that students cansee the generation of each step. Then provide a visual instructional plan (VIP)--in which each step is detailed--topupils to use when they get stuck in individual practice orindependent practice.] Refer to the VRT while working practiceexamples as a group. Phase four: Guided practice [in class "seat work." With theteacher circulating [e.g., "praise, prompt, and leave"]. Monitorstudents' work, providing corrective feedback as necessary, andassess performance of the group in determining whether the classis ready for the next instruction. Additional time for thosewhose aptitude calls for a longer learning period can be providedby giving "extra credit" assignments, supplementary activities,etc. Phase five: Independent practice [additional class time orhomework] begins when students have achieved an 85 to 90% accuracy level. To insure retention and develop fluency,students practice on their own without assistance and withdelayed feedback [e.g., comments on graded papers]. Five or morebrief practice activities distributed over a month or more may berequired to "fix" the new concept/skill.
Go back to top of this page.
Go back to Class handouts, models, keys, etc.
Go back to main index
Cooperative Learning Activities
"Knowing is not enough; we must apply. Willing is not enough; we must do." - Goethe
Solve a Problem/Send a Problem: Each group receives a problem in a folder and reaches consensus regarding the answer. The answer is written on the back and the folder is passed on to a new group. This group discusses the question and comes to some consensus; they compare their answer to what is on back and may write an alternative to the originating group's answer. This continues with each group. Eventually the folder returns to the original group who reviews and discusses the alternative responses of the other groups. Finally, each group reports to the large group on their problem and the solution(s).
Jigsaw: Divide the class into several expert groups that are assigned separate topics related to a common theme or topic. Each group researches and discusses the topic. The groups are then reassembled so that there is an expert from each group in each newly assembled group. Each group member teaches their area of expertise to their new team members and/or the group collaboratively solves a task requiring the expertise of each group member.
Think-Pair-Share or Think-Write-Pair-Share: Students think quietly about a problem and then discuss their answer with a neighbor. Or they think and write their thoughts and discuss their written response with a neighbor. Volunteers are asked to share their common answers.
Learning Cell: Students read an assignment and prepare questions. When they return to class they are randomly assigned to a partner. Partners ask each other their questions and discuss the answers.
Showdown: Students work individually to answer instructor-posed questions followed by a "showdown". When every student on a team has finished the first question, they put their pencils down and have a "showdown" by simultaneously showing their answers to their teammates. If there is consensus, they encourage one another and move on to the next question. If there are differences, they work together to come to a consensus before moving on to the next question. This activity works best with questions that have clearly right or wrong answers. Remind students that this is not a show-up activity. They share/compare their answers to reach consensus, not to see who's right or wrong.
Venn Diagram: This is an activity to visually help students see the relationships between concepts, ideas or objects. In groups, have students draw two overlapping circles on a large sheet of paper. Select two concepts and have students brainstorm characteristics that make each concept unique and characteristics that are common to both concepts. The characteristics that make each unique are written in the outer halves of the two circles. What they have in common is written in the middle where the two circles overlap. Students can use these diagrams to write reports or review for an exam.
-Tracy PriceCenter for Teaching Excellence
Compiled from the following resources:Abrami, P.C. et al., Classroom Connections: Understanding and Using Cooperative Learning. Toronto, ON: Harcourt Brace and Co. 1995Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R., & Smith. K. (1998). Active Learning: Cooperation In The College Classroom, Edina, MN: Interaction Book Co.Kagan, S., and Kagan, M., "Timed-Pair-Share and Showdown: Simple Co-Op Structures for Divergent and Convergent Thinking", Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, Winter 1997,Vol 7, No.2.
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Developing a Good Syllabus: Communicating Your Requirements, Expectations and Intentions to Students
This teaching-ette will provide specific suggestions for developing a syllabus that effectively communicates information to your students. In addition, strategies will be presented for facilitating students’ understanding of the syllabus and encouraging them to use it as a resource throughout the semester.
“Include more rather than less [in a syllabus]. Specificity and detail are valuable learning tools and reduce initial anxiety.” (Davis, 1993)
“While including basic information, the learning-centered syllabus can be an important learning tool that will reinforce the intentions, roles, attitudes, and strategies that you will use to promote active, purposeful, effective learning.” (Grunert, 1997)
Components of an Effective Course Syllabus
The official LCC course syllabus requires items 1-13. In general, these are the minimum requirements, and under several items there is space for additional information by the department or section instructor. Numbers 14-27 are also items to consider but may not be applicable to all courses. Checking with your own department about additions to the syllabus is advised because guidelines vary across departments within the college.
The name of the instructor, course, department, and institution.
Instructor contact information, including office location and office hours, phone number, e-mail address, and any other method you prefer students use to get in touch with you.
Days, times and location of class meetings.
Any prerequisite, co-requisite, or recommended courses as well as any restrictions for the course.
A detailed course description that clearly explains the focus of the course and the content that will be covered. The following is the course description for Local Detention, CJUS 130.
The course explains operations of local detention facilities and their unique role in the criminal justice system. Emphasis is placed on Michigan jail and lockup operations, as well as the organization, management, policy environment, and emerging issues confronting American jails. Differences in jails and prisons regarding operations and differing clienteles are also covered.
Required or recommended texts or other instructional materials for the class.
Student learning outcomes explaining what students will know and be able to do as a result of taking this course.
Methods of instruction that will be used in the class.
Methods of evaluating student achievement and progress in the class. This section should clearly explain the assignments that must be completed by students, the weight of each and the grading scale used in the course.
College policies on attendance, withdrawals and incomplete grades. These are stated in the Lansing Community College Catalog, available on-line at http://www.lcc.edu/catalog/
A detailed outline of course content and the sequence of information to be covered.
Information about the transfer potential of the course.
College policies on student academic integrity. The following definitions are found in LCC’s catalog, February 2003.
PlagiarismEach student is expected to be honest in his or her work. Plagiarism is dishonest. Plagiarism includes, but is not limited to, the use, by paraphrase or direct quotation, of the published or unpublished work of another person without full and clear acknowledgment. It also includes the unacknowledged use of materials prepared by another person or agency engaged in the selling of term papers and/or other academic materials.
CheatingEach student is expected to be honest in his or her work. Cheating is dishonest. The term “cheating” includes but is not limited to: (1) use of any unauthorized assistance in taking quizzes, tests, or examinations; (2) dependence upon the aid of sources beyond those authorized by the instructor in writing papers, preparing reports, solving problems, or carrying out other assignments; or (3) the acquisition, without permission, of tests or other academic material belonging to a member of the College faculty or staff. Any interaction between students in a testing situation may be interpreted as cheating. Academic honesty is twofold on the part of the student; first, not to cheat, and second, not to enable others to cheat.
A clarification of the distinctions between plagiarism, paraphrasing, and direct citation. You may want to provide students with examples of correct and incorrect ways of using their sources. (Davis, 1993)
Expectations for time spent on homework and/or group work, in addition to in-class time. For example, if you assign a group presentation and expect that students prepare for this outside of class, clearly state that they will need to make arrangements to meet with fellow group members on their own time.
Specific expectations for student behavior in class. These may include your expectations such as: Cell phones off, eating limited to break times, etc.
Contact information for other resources such as the library, computer help desk, assessment center, or tutoring center.
A table of contents so that students can quickly reference desired information in your syllabus. (Grunert, 1997)
Include in the syllabus a letter written to the students addressing some common questions or concerns. (Grunert, 1997)
Include in the syllabus a list of frequently asked questions about your course and the answers.
Any additional information on your attendance policies including the consequences to a student’s grade for non-attendance.
Your policy on “excused absences” versus “skipping” class and what constitutes each.
The instructor’s policies on making up exams or completing missed work.
Any penalties for late assignments and the circumstances under which these penalties will or will not be applied.
A clear definition of the students’ responsibilities in the class. For example: “Students are responsible for completing all of the assigned readings and worksheets prior to the time the class meets to cover that material.”
A clear definition of the instructor’s role and responsibility to students. For example: “It is the instructor’s responsibility in this class to evaluate student work fairly and to give feedback on assignments in a timely fashion.”
A clearly stated extra credit policy and whether or not extra credit will be used.
“Beyond the content of the syllabus is its tone, which can give welcoming or hostile messages…Syllabi that contain humor and enthusiasm can create good first impressions.” (Teaching Handbook, Ohio State University)
Getting Your Points Across To The Audience That Matters
Keep in mind the impact on your students when choosing the wording in your syllabus. Rigid policies and a focus on the penalties for every possible infraction of the rules may be intimidating, especially to more vulnerable students like those right out of high school or those returning after several years away from school.
Use humor and/or a lighter touch when going over the syllabus in class. This will likely make students feel that you are a “real person” and that they can approach you with questions or concerns. Of course, be certain that any humor you use in class is not sarcastic, racist, sexist, homophobic, or otherwise derogatory to an individual or group. (Teaching Handbook, Ohio State University)
Communicate your enthusiasm for your subject and for teaching. If you are passionate about 19th century literature, then maybe they will think there’s something to it. (If the instructor seems bored by the material, why should students bother?)
Communicate your teaching philosophy to the students.
Consider including some information about yourself both in the syllabus and/or during the first class meeting. Students are interested in your background and knowing more about your approach to teaching the class. An introduction may reduce some of their anxiety and develop a rapport. (Teaching Handbook, Ohio State University)
Point out your office location and hours and emphasize your willingness to help students individually and your desire to hear student concerns.
On the first day of class bring enough copies of the course syllabus for each student. This models the behaviors you’d like to see in your students.
Use a three-hole punch on your syllabus so that students can place it in a binder for reference throughout the semester.
Before making copies for each student, carefully proofread and/or have someone else proofread your syllabus for typos, etc. Students will notice mistakes.
If any changes are made to the syllabus, be sure to give those changes to students in writing. (Teaching Handbook, Ohio State University)
Post an electronic copy of your syllabus on-line where students will have access to it at any time.
In your on-line syllabus, create an e-mail link to the instructor so that students can easily contact you. (Keys to an Effective Hyper-Syllabus)
You may want to create links within the syllabus to a discussion board, where you regularly post questions about the course material and invite or require class discussions. (Keys to an Effective Hyper-Syllabus)
Looks matter. Use a quality printer and paper, and pay attention to print size, margins, and spacing. Use bold or italics, different fonts, or underlining to focus attention on certain items. (Becker and Calhoon, 1999)
Bring extra copies of the syllabus to class with you for the first 2 weeks for any late additions.
Spend part of the first class period discussing the course syllabus with your students. This emphasizes the importance of this document. Passing the syllabus out without taking time to discuss it gives the impression that it’s not really important.
As a discussion topic or icebreaker on the first day, divide students into groups and have them list questions they often have when starting a new semester. Have them review the syllabus looking for answers. Follow this up by addressing questions not answered in the syllabus.
Or, divide students into groups and distribute to each group several prepared note cards with questions about the class. Have the groups hunt for the answers in the syllabus.
Throughout the semester, when students ask a question for which there is an answer in the syllabus, gently remind them that the syllabus is a resource for them to use and that most questions are addressed there. If it is a question that is frequently asked, or one that you suspect other students might have, you could invite anyone in the class to find the answer. However, use caution, and perhaps a bit of humor if appropriate, as some students might feel criticized and reluctant to speak up in the future.
Encourage students to refer to the course syllabus often with respect to due dates, explanations of assignments, and the grading policies.
Involve students in setting ground rules for the class, within the parameters of the guidelines you’ve presented in the syllabus.
For example, if you have a written policy that students be respectful of the instructor and other students, invite the class to work in small groups to construct two lists of behaviors, one indicative of desirable behaviors and the other not. They may decide that the ground rules include raising one’s hand to speak and not interrupting another speaker. Reach consensus in the large group, type up the ground rules and bring enough copies for all of the students. If you notice that students are not adhering to the ground rules, remind them to review the rules from time-to-time, and/or have the students as a group review and revise them as necessary.
Resources for Syllabus Construction
Altman, Howard B. & Cashin, William E. Writing A Syllabus. http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/writesyl.htm
Becker, Angela H. & Calhoon, Sharon, K. (1999) What Introductory Psychology Students Attend to on a Course Syllabus. Teaching of Psychology, 26 (1), 6-11. Cited in The Teaching Professor, Volume 14, Number 1. (January, 2000)
Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools for Teaching, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Grunert, Judith (1997) The Course Syllabus: A Learning-Centered Approach. Bolton, Massachusetts: Anker Publishing Company, Inc. http://www.oberlin.edu/stuorg/exco/instructors/syllabus_tips.doc.
“Material Prepared by Lee Haugen” April 1998. Learning-Centered Syllabi Workshop. Center For Teaching Excellence at Iowa State University. http://www.celt.iastate.edu/teaching/syllabi.html
Lowther, M. A., Stark, J. S., and Martens, G. G. (1989). Preparing Course Syllabi for Improved Communication, Ann Arbor, MI: The National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning.
Mager, R.F. Preparing Instructional Objectives. 2nd edition. 1984. Belmont, CA. http://www.gsu.edu/~mstmbs/CrsTools/Magerobj.html
McKeachie, W. J. (1986). Teaching Tips, 9th Ed., Lexington, MA: Heath.
Perlman, Baron & McCann, Lee. Writing a Good Course Syllabus. May 1998. http://www.uwosh.edu/ http://www.opd.iupui.edu/
Stage, Frances K. Muller, Patricia A, Kinzie, Jillian, & Simmons, Ada. (1998).
George Washington Univ. Washington DC. Graduate School of Education and Human Development., ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education Washington DC. Wright, Delivee L. The Most Important Day: Starting Well. Teaching and Learning Center, University of Nebraska. July, 1999. http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/dayone.htm
Keys to an Effective Hyper-Syllabus. (2003) OTEL Office of Technology-Enhanced Learning at the University of Illinois at Springfield. http://www.uillinois.edu/
Teaching Handbook, Chapter 3. Ohio State University. Office of Faculty and Teaching Assistant Development.
Speaking of Teaching. Stanford University Newsletter on Teaching. Winter 1998; (9), No. 2.

Classroom Assessment Techniques
Classroom assessment is "an approach (developed by Thomas Angelo and K. Patricia Cross) designed to help teachers find out what students are learning in the classroom and how well they are learning it" (p. 4). This assessment technique has become invaluable to faculty because of its strong attributes. Classroom assessment is:
learner-centered. It is designed to be used between teaching and testing to find out how well students are doing in time to help them improve.
teacher-directed. Because classroom assessment occurs in individuals' classrooms, faculty members make all the choices about implementation, including how to handle the results.
mutually beneficial to the learner & the faculty member.
formative. The main purpose of classroom assessment is "to improve learning in progress by providing teachers with the kind of feedback they need to inform their day-to-day instructional decisions, and by providing students with information that can help them learn more effectively."
context-specific. The technique a faculty member chooses is selected, designed and used for a specific class for the benefit of that class.
on-going.
firmly rooted in good practice (Cross & Angelo, pp. 4-6). Classroom assessment techniques enhance student learning by focusing attention; by encouraging deep processing and connecting new learning to other information from the learner's background; and better enabling metacognition, e.g., students thinking about their learning and thinking.
Tips for using these techniques with the most success
Since they were originally published in the late eighties, Classroom Assessment Techniques have been used by thousands of college faculty. Numerous tips have been gathered for getting the most out of using Classroom Assessment Techniques.
Use CATs that appeal to your intuition and judgment. There are 50 CATs described in Cross and Angelo's book. Some will appeal to you more than others.
Start small. There are 5 CATs that have been promoted as excellent "introductory" CATs because they are flexible and adaptable, as well as simple and quick to apply. These CATs are:
The One Minute Paper (CAT #6)
The Muddiest Point (CAT #7)
The One-Sentence Summary (CAT #13)
Directed Paraphrasing (CAT #23)
Applications Cards (CAT #24)
Try the CAT on yourself first.
Allow sufficient time in your classroom schedule to conduct these assessments. Time is needed for both conducting the CAT and providing feedback to your class about the results.
Be sure to close the communication loop. Once you've shared what you learned from the CAT, then discuss how both of you can use the information to improve your teaching and their learning.
The Handbook: An Invaluable Resource
Cross and Angelo's handbook, CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES: A HANDBOOK FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS (SECOND EDITION), is an invaluable resource. The authors write, "This is a practical handbook, designed for easy reference and for readers with varied levels of experience with Classroom Assessment" (p. xv). Some of the key features of the book are described below. It includes:
A "Teaching Goals Inventory" a survey to identify and rank the relative importance of faculty teaching goals according to 6 categories; pp. 20-22.
"A Checklist for Avoiding Problems with CATs" to make sure you're prepared; p. 59.
Three indexes for finding CATs
alphabetical index; p. 109
examples by discipline; pp. 110-112
categorizing by Teaching Goals; pp. 113-114
Parallel descriptive elements for each of the CATs, including:
Name & number of the CAT
Estimation of time & energy required for its use.
Description and purpose of the technique.
Related Teaching Goals.
Some suggestions for using each CAT, as well as examples of ways it has been used by others.
Step-by-step directions.
Suggestions for analyzing the feedback and what to do next
Benefits and drawbacks of, as well as cautions about, each CAT.
Additional references and resources when applicable.
- Kathy ShafferCenter for Teaching Excellence
Angelo, Thomas A and Cross, K. Patricia. (1993). Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook For College Teachers (Second Edition). San Francisco
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Cooperative Learning Activities
"Knowing is not enough; we must apply. Willing is not enough; we must do." - Goethe
Solve a Problem/Send a Problem: Each group receives a problem in a folder and reaches consensus regarding the answer. The answer is written on the back and the folder is passed on to a new group. This group discusses the question and comes to some consensus; they compare their answer to what is on back and may write an alternative to the originating group's answer. This continues with each group. Eventually the folder returns to the original group who reviews and discusses the alternative responses of the other groups. Finally, each group reports to the large group on their problem and the solution(s).
Jigsaw: Divide the class into several expert groups that are assigned separate topics related to a common theme or topic. Each group researches and discusses the topic. The groups are then reassembled so that there is an expert from each group in each newly assembled group. Each group member teaches their area of expertise to their new team members and/or the group collaboratively solves a task requiring the expertise of each group member.
Think-Pair-Share or Think-Write-Pair-Share: Students think quietly about a problem and then discuss their answer with a neighbor. Or they think and write their thoughts and discuss their written response with a neighbor. Volunteers are asked to share their common answers.
Learning Cell: Students read an assignment and prepare questions. When they return to class they are randomly assigned to a partner. Partners ask each other their questions and discuss the answers.
Showdown: Students work individually to answer instructor-posed questions followed by a "showdown". When every student on a team has finished the first question, they put their pencils down and have a "showdown" by simultaneously showing their answers to their teammates. If there is consensus, they encourage one another and move on to the next question. If there are differences, they work together to come to a consensus before moving on to the next question. This activity works best with questions that have clearly right or wrong answers. Remind students that this is not a show-up activity. They share/compare their answers to reach consensus, not to see who's right or wrong.
Venn Diagram: This is an activity to visually help students see the relationships between concepts, ideas or objects. In groups, have students draw two overlapping circles on a large sheet of paper. Select two concepts and have students brainstorm characteristics that make each concept unique and characteristics that are common to both concepts. The characteristics that make each unique are written in the outer halves of the two circles. What they have in common is written in the middle where the two circles overlap. Students can use these diagrams to write reports or review for an exam.
-Tracy PriceCenter for Teaching Excellence
Compiled from the following resources:Abrami, P.C. et al., Classroom Connections: Understanding and Using Cooperative Learning. Toronto, ON: Harcourt Brace and Co. 1995Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R., & Smith. K. (1998). Active Learning: Cooperation In The College Classroom, Edina, MN: Interaction Book Co.Kagan, S., and Kagan, M., "Timed-Pair-Share and Showdown: Simple Co-Op Structures for Divergent and Convergent Thinking", Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, Winter 1997,Vol 7, No.2.
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